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Cheese from South Asia, Latin America, Ethiopia, Yunnan
Heat-acid cheeses are made by heating milk and curdling it with an acid such as citric acid. The hot curd is drained and pressed, and the whey proteins stay bound in the curd. This is a boundary entry, since acid alone is not a fermentation, but some members use soured whey or buttermilk, which is.
| Whole cow or buffalo milk | Skim milk yields a very hard-bodied paneer[kumar2014] |
| Acid coagulantCitric acid as a 1 % solution | Added slowly to hot milk; lactic acid, tartaric acid, alum and sour whey are also named as coagulants[kumar2014] |
| Salt1.0 % of the curd | Added to the curd in the lab queso blanco[kim2017] |
| Starter | none when citric acid or another food acid sets the curd, which is not a fermentation; sour whey or sour buttermilk as the acid is a fermentation |
Total time across the recorded steps: 2.5 h – 3.6 h
What changes: The milk is heated to 82 °C and then cooled to 70 °C
Output: hot milk.
Microbes at work in this step
Khan and Pal's review says coliforms, yeasts and moulds in raw milk are destroyed by 82 °C for 5 min
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Heat-acid cheeses are made by heating milk and curdling it with an acid such as citric acid. The hot curd is drained and pressed, and the whey proteins stay bound in the curd. This is a boundary entry, since acid alone is not a fermentation, but some members use soured whey or buttermilk, which is. Made in 4 steps over 2.5 h – 3.6 h. The longest step, chill in cold water, takes 2–3 h (Kumar S 2014) and runs at 4–6 °C (Kumar S 2014). Salt is 1 % (Jeong H.J 2017). Lactobacillus helveticus, the most common lactic bacterium among isolates from the acid whey used to make dairy fan in Yunnan and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, L. paracasei and L. casei, Limosilactobacillus reuteri and L. sakei, and Lactiplantibacillus curvatus and L. plantarum strains from Ethiopian fermented milk, added as starter cultures in a lab study of ayib do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 2–3 hReported[kumar2014] | Chill in cold water |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | 4–6 °CReported[kumar2014] | Chill in cold water |
| Salt | 1 %Reported[kim2017] | Drain and press |
| Acidity | pH 5.2–5.3Reported[kumar2014] | Add the acid |
Set by heat and acid with no culture and no ripening, so it is not a fermentation unless the acid comes from soured whey or buttermilk.
Made the same way, each with what its own sources record.
Cheese from Bangladesh, Dhaka
Dhakai paneer is the paneer of Dhaka, Bangladesh. We could not open a source that describes how it is made.
Cheese from Albania
An acid- and heat-set curd, often made from yogurt, rather than a rennet cheese, and drained dry rather than ripened.
Sources: TasteAtlas; Wiktionary
Cheese from Western Siberia
An acid-heat curd from soured milk, not a rennet cheese. Longer boiling browns it into the sweet sary irimshik, and the same process carried further gives dried kurt balls.
Cheese from Finland
Set with eggs and soured cream near the boil rather than with rennet, and sweetened with sugar; the only fermentation is the souring of the cream.
Sources: Pehkonen K 2024
Cheese from Italy, Trentino-Alto Adige, province of Bolzano
It is not ripened by a culture. Hot skim milk is curdled with vinegar or citric acid, and the flavour comes from the herbs and pepper kneaded in. It is shaped as a small hand-made cone.
Sources: ONAF (national organisation of cheese tasters); Ministero delle politiche agricole; ONAF; US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Paneer cannot be kept more than a day at room temperature in the tropics, and about 7 days at 6–8 °C. Its spoilage comes from microorganisms growing on the surface. India's PFA rules allow at most 70 % moisture and require at least 50 % fat on dry matter. The review says heating milk at 82 °C for 5 min destroyed coliforms, yeasts and moulds, but they can return from unsterilised utensils, unclean water or packaging during chilling and packing.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Kumar and colleagues write that a solid mass eaten in the Kusana and Saka Satavahana periods (AD 75–300) seems the earliest reference to paneer. Khan and Pal say paneer was probably first introduced into India by Persian and Afghan invaders, and spread beyond the north-west only in the last five decades.
