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Vegetables from Korea
Napa cabbage is soaked in brine until the leaves bend, rinsed, and coated leaf by leaf with a paste of chilli, garlic, radish and salted seafood. It starts at room temperature for a day or two, then ripens cold until it is sour and fizzy.
| Napa cabbage2 medium heads (about 6–8 lb) | Quartered, cored and chopped into 2-inch pieces[csu-kimchi] |
| Coarse non-iodized salt1½ cups | ½ cup in 1 gallon of cold water for a brief dip, and 1 cup massaged into the cabbage[csu-kimchi] |
| Cold water1 gallon + ½ cup | The gallon for the brine dip, the ½ cup to cook the rice paste[csu-kimchi] |
| Sweet rice flour2 Tbsp | Boiled with ½ cup water and cooled to make a paste[csu-kimchi] |
| Garlic1–10 cloves | Depending on taste[csu-kimchi] |
| Fresh ginger rootAbout 3 slices | About 0.2–0.4 oz[csu-kimchi] |
| Korean red pepper powder1 cup | The kind made for kimchi[csu-kimchi] |
| Korean radish or daikon½ radish (about 1–1.5 lb) | Cut into matchsticks about 1 inch long[csu-kimchi] |
| Green onions10 | Cut into matchsticks about 1 inch long[csu-kimchi] |
| Asian pear1 | Optional[csu-kimchi] |
| Fish sauce1 tsp | Optional[csu-kimchi] |
| Finely ground salt2 tsp | Optional, added only as needed[csu-kimchi] |
| Starter | spontaneous |
Total time across the recorded steps: 11 days – 13 days
What changes: A cut line splits each head into quarters so the brine can reach every leaf
FAO's flow chart cuts each head into four so the brine reaches every leaf. Output: cabbage halves or quarters.
Microbes at work in this step
Not documented for this step.
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Napa cabbage is soaked in brine until the leaves bend, rinsed, and coated leaf by leaf with a paste of chilli, garlic, radish and salted seafood. It starts at room temperature for a day or two, then ripens cold until it is sour and fizzy. Made in 6 steps over 11 days – 13 days. The longest step, ripen cold, takes 10 days (Lee M.-E 2015) and runs at up to 5 °C (Snyder A 2020). Salt is 8–15 % → 2 % (Battcock M. and Azam-Ali S. 1998). Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Weissella do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 10 daysReported[lee2015] | Ripen cold |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | up to 5 °CReported[snyder2020][lee2015] | Ripen cold |
| Salt | 8–15 % → 2 %Reported[fao134] | Soak in brine until the leaves bend |
| Acidity | pH 4.2–4.4Measured[song1995][csu-kimchi][lee2015] | Ripen cold |
Sauerkraut is dry-salted and ferments in its own juice. Baechu kimchi is brined first, rinsed, then seasoned leaf by leaf with a chilli, garlic and seafood paste, and it ripens cold for weeks, so Leuconostoc stays in charge longer.
Kimchi depends on its pH falling steadily below 4.6. That limit holds back Clostridium botulinum and lets the acid reduce E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella, so Snyder et al. make it the one critical control point, and Western Australia's health department uses the same limit. Snyder et al. say to discard a batch that fails to reach it or whose pH stops falling, and that lightly fermented batches may carry more risk. Store kimchi covered at 5 °C or below; the Colorado State University Extension recipe says to keep it refrigerated and eat it within about a week.
Hazards the sources name: Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella, reduced as the pH falls but able to survive in lightly fermented batches; Clostridium botulinum, held back once the pH is below 4.6; Staphylococcus aureus, reported in kimchi products.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
A 2023 review traces fermented vegetables in Korea to the Three Kingdoms period and calls Kyubo Lee's 13th-century poem Gapoyukyeong the first literature on them, with pickled radish as a common Goryeo food. On cabbage the accounts disagree. The review reports claims that cabbage kimchi developed only in the 19th century and that red kimchi dates from the 1592 Japanese invasion, but it argues from the Samguk Sagi (1145) and from the cabbage word sung in texts of 1241 to 1497 that cabbage kimchi and Korean red pepper are much older (Surya and Nugroho 2023). Joseon cookbooks recording kimchi include the Suunjapbang (1540) and the Sanlimkyungje (1715).
