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Alcoholic drinks from West/Central/East Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Pacific, Latin America, North Africa
Palm wine is the sweet sap of a palm, tapped from the flower stalk or the felled trunk and left to ferment on its own. Yeasts and lactic bacteria from the tree, the air and the reused pots start work at once, so the sap is mildly alcoholic within hours and strong and sour within a day or two. Left longer it turns to vinegar, and in many places it is distilled into a palm spirit.
| Fresh palm sap | Nothing is added; the yeasts and bacteria come from the tree, the air and the reused pots[oluwole2023][nnk2020] |
| Oil palm sap (Elaeis guineensis) or raffia sap (Raphia) | Typical in West Africa; a review reports fresh oil-palm sap at pH 6.6 and 9.6–10.6 % sucrose[oluwole2023] |
| Palmyra sap (Borassus flabellifer) | Toddy palm; a review reports fresh palmyra sap at pH 7.4 and 9.3–17.4 % sucrose[nnk2020][oluwole2023] |
| Coconut sap | Philippine palm wines are gathered mostly from coconut, nipa or kaong palms; palm wine fermented a few days to a few weeks is called tubâ[wp-palm-wine] |
| Starter | spontaneous (airborne and container-residue yeasts) — back-slop through reused containers |
Total time across the recorded steps: 35 days – 42 days
What changes: Sap drips from the cut flower stalk into a collecting pot
Output: fresh sweet sap.
Microbes at work in this step
fermentation starts in the collecting pot
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Palm wine is the sweet sap of a palm, tapped from the flower stalk or the felled trunk and left to ferment on its own. Yeasts and lactic bacteria from the tree, the air and the reused pots start work at once, so the sap is mildly alcoholic within hours and strong and sour within a day or two. Left longer it turns to vinegar, and in many places it is distilled into a palm spirit. Made in 5 steps over 35 days – 42 days. The longest step, acetic stage (if left), takes 28–35 days (Nyein Nyein Khaing 2020). Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum and Leuconostoc mesenteroides do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 28–35 daysMeasured[nnk2020] | Acetic stage (if left) |
|---|---|---|
| Acidity | pH 4.4 → 3.5Measured[nnk2020] | Acetic stage (if left) |
Palm wine starts from a sugary sap, so it needs no malting, mashing or starter; the microbes come with the sap and the pots. It is drunk within a day or two, while it is still fermenting, before it turns to vinegar.
Made the same way, each with what its own sources record.
Alcoholic drinks from Malaysia
Bahar is fresh coconut sap mixed with rosok bark, and the mixture turns red.
Alcoholic drinks from Philippines
Kinutil is a mixed drink, with raw egg yolk and/or tabliya chocolate stirred into tubâ, not a ferment of its own.
Sources: Wikipedia; Wikipedia; Agaton S.I.G. 2022; US Food and Drug Administration
Alcoholic drinks from Thailand
Namtanmao is palmyra or coconut sap fermented in closed clay jars; the Thai name means "intoxicating palm sugar".
Sources: Wikipedia; FermDB (Bokulich lab; Limtong S.; Thai legal category and Sathing Phra jar practice (Thai news sites
Raw sap and the wine can carry Nipah virus where bats reach the collecting pots. A 2016 Bangladesh study found bat excreta reportedly inside tari pots, and suggested keeping bats off the sap. Palm wine keeps only a day or two at ambient temperature. Bottled palm wine has been preserved by heating to 70 °C for 30 min with sodium metabisulphite. Byssochlamys moulds can spoil bottled raffia wine and survive heating above 85 °C.
Hazards the sources name: Bacillus cereus, found in bandji palm wine in Burkina Faso; Byssochlamys moulds, which spoil bottled raffia wine and survive above 85 °C; Nipah virus, a bat-borne virus; bat excreta was reportedly found inside the pots used to make date palm tari in Bangladesh, and eight of 14 case-patients drank it.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Wikipedia gives palm wine's origin as Africa and Asia and its introduction as Neolithic. It says coconut tuba-making reached western Mexico from the Philippines on the Manila galleons to Acapulco, and that palm wine production may have contributed to the endangered status of the Chilean wine palm.
