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Cereals and bread from Somalia, Somaliland, Djibouti and Ethiopia's Somali State
A runny batter of sorghum, maize, wheat or other flours and water is beaten by hand and left overnight to ferment, sometimes with a little batter from the day before. In the morning it is poured in a spiral onto a small greased griddle, covered and baked on one side into a soft, spongy, slightly sour pancake-bread.
| Flour blend (budo) of sorghum, maize, barley, millet or other grains1 part | Ground at local mills; red sorghum alone in one sample[pasqualone2023][wolgamuth2022] |
| Refined wheat flour1–2 parts (optional) | Refined wheat to budo 1:1 or 2:1 in the samples studied; some cooks use wheat alone[pasqualone2023] |
| Water, usually at room temperature2 parts per part of flour | Warm water in cold seasons[pasqualone2023][wolgamuth2026] |
| Salt | Used by 55–56 % of cooks surveyed[wolgamuth2022] |
| Dhanaanis (some of yesterday's fermented batter) or cajiin (pre-gelatinised dough), optional | [wolgamuth2022] |
| Starter | spontaneous (wild yeasts), or backslop (dhanaanis); baker's yeast in some modern versions |
Total time across the recorded steps: 9.7 h – 24 h
What changes: Flour and water are beaten by hand into a smooth, bubbly batter
Output: batter.
Microbes at work in this step
Not documented for this step.
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
A runny batter of sorghum, maize, wheat or other flours and water is beaten by hand and left overnight to ferment, sometimes with a little batter from the day before. In the morning it is poured in a spiral onto a small greased griddle, covered and baked on one side into a soft, spongy, slightly sour pancake-bread. Made in 4 steps over 9.7 h – 24 h. The longest step, ferment overnight, takes 9.5–24 h (Wolgamuth E 2026). Wild yeasts from the flour and the environment and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commercial baker's yeast) in some batters do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 9.5–24 hReported[wolgamuth2026][wolgamuth2022] | Ferment overnight |
|---|
Laxoox and lahoh ferment once, overnight, in a single batter. Ethiopian injera ferments twice, for days, and is made mostly from teff, while these breads use flour blends that often include wheat.
The survey reports that cooks cover the fermenting batter to keep out animals and debris. It also notes that treating flour with hot water, as in cajiin, can in some cases decrease naturally occurring mycotoxins. The sources used here give no pH or microbe counts for the batter.
Hazards the sources name: Naturally occurring mycotoxins in the flour (the survey says the hot-water cajiin treatment can in some cases decrease them).
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Wikipedia says Yemenite Jewish immigrants popularized lahoh in Israel. In the early to mid-20th century Somali laxoox was made from sorghum hand-ground with water on a saddle quern, with cajiin made by hand over one to two days. Industrial kneading machines for cajiin were introduced in several Somali cities in the late 20th century, and those in Somaliland cities were destroyed or dismantled in the conflict leading up to the civil war. The 2022 survey links the heritage style to the era of seminomadic pastoralists and the other styles to the Somali civil conflict. Refined wheat flour is now the most common ingredient.
