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Soy and legumes from West Africa
Dawadawa, iru and soumbala are West African names for one seasoning made from the seeds of the African locust bean tree. The hard seeds are boiled for many hours, shelled, boiled again, heaped in covered trays and left for one to three days while Bacillus bacteria heat the mass, make it sticky and alkaline, and give it a strong ammonia smell.
| Dried, cleaned African locust bean seeds | [zannou2018] |
| Water for two boils | [zannou2018] |
| Fine sand or ash | Added in Benin to make shelling easier[zannou2018] |
| Leaves, jute sacks, heavy cloth or polythene | To cover the cotyledons while they ferment[zannou2018][opai1999] |
| Starter | spontaneous; in Benin sonru may be started with yanyanku |
Total time across the recorded steps: 31 h – 4.3 days
What changes: Starting material: hard locust-bean seeds boiled for hours until the coats soften
Output: seeds with softened testa.
Microbes at work in this step
Not documented for this step.
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Dawadawa, iru and soumbala are West African names for one seasoning made from the seeds of the African locust bean tree. The hard seeds are boiled for many hours, shelled, boiled again, heaped in covered trays and left for one to three days while Bacillus bacteria heat the mass, make it sticky and alkaline, and give it a strong ammonia smell. Made in 6 steps over 31 h – 4.3 days. The longest step, ferment, takes 24 h – 3 days (Zannou O 2018) and runs at 25 °C → 45 °C (Opai-Tetteh S. 1999). Bacillus subtilis, the main fermenter and Bacillus pumilus and B. licheniformis do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 24 h – 3 daysReported[zannou2018] | Ferment |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | 25 °C → 45 °CReported[opai1999][zannou2018] | Ferment |
| Acidity | pH 7 → 8.1Reported[opai1999] | Ferment |
Locust beans are so hard that the first boil runs 6 to 24 h. The countries differ mostly in how long they boil and ferment, which gives each name its own flavour (Zannou 2018).
Market products often have high bacterial counts from poor hygiene during making and storage, and some carry ochratoxin A and aflatoxins. In a Benin study, 7 of 19 Bacillus cereus isolates from locust-bean condiments made cereulide, a vomiting toxin; one of the seven came from iru, the rest from afitin and sonru. In cooked locust beans inoculated with such a strain, it reached about 97 µg/g at 30 °C within 48 h but stayed very low at 40 °C. The authors say these fermentations mostly run above 40 °C and know of no reports of illness from these condiments. Salting has been suggested to lower the microbial load. Cook the condiment into the dish, but know that cooking does not remove cereulide, which stays stable after 121 °C for 30 minutes (FDA).
Hazards the sources name: Staphylococcus from poor handling during making and sale; High mean aerobic counts (6.17–8.47 log10 cfu/g) in market soumbara in Korhogo, above the 6 log guide value; Ochratoxin A (7 of 60 samples, up to 21 µg/kg) and aflatoxins (7 of 60 samples, up to 8 µg/kg) in market iru from southwest Nigeria; Bacillus cereus that makes the vomiting toxin cereulide; one isolate from iru in Benin, six more from the related afitin and sonru.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Campbell-Platt recorded in 1980 that ethnic groups (Dagarti, Dagomba, Frafra, Kusasi, Mossi) shape dawadawa differently, some using soybean or a groundnut mixture. Odunfa first reported in 1981 that a Bacillus, possibly B. subtilis, was the main fermenter.
