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Cereals and bread from Greece and Cyprus
Chickpea-leavened bread is raised with a fermented chickpea liquid instead of baker's yeast. Coarsely ground chickpeas ferment submerged in water for about 18 hours while spore-forming bacilli and then clostridia grow, and the clostridia make the gas. The foamy liquid is mixed with wheat flour into a starter that rises in about 2 hours and leavens the bread.
| Coarsely ground chickpeas | In a 2020 Turkish study, 50 g of broken chickpeas in a jar[s1b][thesis2009][boyaci2020] |
| Water | The chickpeas ferment submerged in it; Turkish bakeries use boiled water, and the 2020 study used 400 mL of boiled water cooled to 37 °C[s1b][boyaci2020] |
| Wheat flour | Mixed with the fermented liquid to make the adapted starter and then the dough[s1b][boyaci2020] |
| Starter | spontaneous; the chickpea leaven (primary starter) is grown fresh each time |
Total time across the recorded steps: 20 h
What changes: Coarsely ground chickpeas go into a jar and water is added
In Turkish bakeries boiled water is poured onto coarsely ground chickpeas in a jar or bottle. Output: chickpeas in water.
Microbes at work in this step
none yet; the chickpeas carry the bacteria that start the fermentation
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Chickpea-leavened bread is raised with a fermented chickpea liquid instead of baker's yeast. Coarsely ground chickpeas ferment submerged in water for about 18 hours while spore-forming bacilli and then clostridia grow, and the clostridia make the gas. The foamy liquid is mixed with wheat flour into a starter that rises in about 2 hours and leavens the bread. Made in 5 steps over 20 h. The longest step, ferment crushed chickpeas in water, takes 18 h (Hatzikamari M 2007) and runs at at least 37 °C (Katsaboxakis K. 1992). Bacillus licheniformis, among the bacilli that grow during the first 8–10 h to about 10^6 cfu/ml and Clostridium beijerinckii, one of the clostridia isolated from the fermenting liquid; the clostridia as a group are credited with the gas do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 18 hReported[s1b][thesis2009][boyaci2020] | Ferment crushed chickpeas in water |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | at least 37 °CReported[katsa1992][s2b][boyaci2020] | Ferment crushed chickpeas in water |
| Acidity | pH 5.4Measured[s1b][thesis2009] | Ferment crushed chickpeas in water |
The leaven is a chickpea ferment, not baker's yeast. Spore-forming bacilli and then clostridia grow in the chickpea soak, and the clostridia make the gas. Turkish bakery starters also hold lactic acid bacteria, mostly Weissella, and Clostridium perfringens was the major group in every sample. American salt-rising bread is also raised by naturally occurring bacteria rather than yeast.
The leaven grows spore-forming bacteria, mainly the Bacillus cereus group and Clostridium perfringens. In the 2007 Greek study the fermented liquid was not toxic to mice when injected, and the authors judged the product safe to eat. That one test does not clear a home batch. The liquid ends near pH 5.4, which is above the lowest pH at which the FDA lists growth for C. perfringens (5.0), B. cereus (4.3) and C. botulinum (4.6), so the acid alone does not stop them, and the study's abstract reports no test for C. botulinum. Clostridium perfringens was the major group in every Turkish bakery sample tested in 2020. Do not taste the liquid or foam before it is baked into bread.
Hazards the sources name: Clostridium perfringens, one of the two main groups of isolates in the Greek study (about 10^7 cfu/ml of clostridia at 18 h) and the major group in all Turkish bakery samples; Bacillus cereus group (B. cereus and B. thuringiensis), the other main group of isolates.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Wikipedia's salt-rising bread article says similar fermented breads that use lentils or chickpeas are made in a few isolated parts of the world, including the Greek islands, Cyprus and Turkey, and that Turkey's Karahöyük bread has traditions thousands of years old. Greek theses studied the eftazymo leaven in 1992 and 2009, and Hatzikamari and colleagues published the bacteria study in 2007. Turkish bakery starters were studied in 2020.
