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Soy and legumes from Vietnam
Chao is Vietnam's fermented tofu, the same family as Chinese sufu. Tofu cubes grow a coat of the mould Actinomucor elegans in a warm, humid room for a day or so, then ferment in a salt brine with other additives. Researchers at Can Tho University have worked out pure spore starters for chao.
| Tofu, cut into 2 × 2 × 2 cm cubes | [phuc2025] |
| Actinomucor elegans spores | A pure spore suspension in the 2025 study; a pure spore powder in the 2011 starter study[thanh2011][phuc2025] |
| Salt brine with other additives | [phuc2025] |
| Starter | Mekong Delta chao makers use traditional natural fermentation (Thanh 2011); the studies instead use pure Actinomucor elegans spores, as a spore powder made on rice bran (Thanh 2011) or a spore suspension the tofu cubes are dipped in (Phuc 2025) |
Total time across the recorded steps: 8.8 days – 9.5 days
What changes: Pure Actinomucor mould grows on rice bran and is dried into a spore powder
After 5 months at 4 °C in polypropylene bags, 88.57 % of the spores were still alive. Output: dried spore powder, kept at 4 °C.
Microbes at work in this step
A. elegans grows and sporulates on the grain
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Chao is Vietnam's fermented tofu, the same family as Chinese sufu. Tofu cubes grow a coat of the mould Actinomucor elegans in a warm, humid room for a day or so, then ferment in a salt brine with other additives. Researchers at Can Tho University have worked out pure spore starters for chao. Made in 5 steps over 8.8 days – 9.5 days. The longest step, make the mould starter (improved method), takes 8 days (Nguyễn Văn Thành 2011) and runs at 30–42 °C (Nguyễn Văn Thành 2011). Actinomucor elegans and Mucor racemosus (two strains, Dong Thap) and Rhizopus microsporus var. microsporus (Soc Trang), mould strains isolated from commercial pehtze in the Mekong Delta do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 8 daysReported[thanh2011] | Make the mould starter (improved method) |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature | 30–42 °CReported[thanh2011] | Make the mould starter (improved method) |
Chao follows the same mould-then-brine method as Chinese sufu (Han 2004). The Vietnamese studies read use a pure Actinomucor elegans starter, and one of them made it from a mould isolated from Chinese white sufu (Phuc 2025).
Naturally fermented chao from the Mekong Delta varies in quality and has been found contaminated with Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, moulds that make aflatoxin (Thanh 2011, citing Võ Thị Hạnh et al. 2001). A pure starter is meant to stop this.
Hazards the sources name: Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, aflatoxin-producing moulds found in some naturally fermented chao.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Both Can Tho studies describe chao as a traditional Vietnamese product, the counterpart of sufu in China. A 2004 Wageningen study of mould starters called chao very similar to sufu and isolated four mould strains from commercial pehtze in An Giang, Soc Trang and Dong Thap in the Mekong Delta. They proved to be Actinomucor elegans, two Mucor racemosus and Rhizopus microsporus [han2004].
