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Cereals and bread from West Africa
Pearl millet is steeped, dehulled and wet-milled with spices, mainly ginger, and the dough is left 12 to 18 hours to sour. Large balls of the sour dough are cooked, pounded into a sticky mass and shaped into small balls, which are mashed into fermented milk (nunu) to make fura de nunu.
| Pearl millet | The 'gero' variety is the one most makers use[jideani2001] |
| Ginger | The most important spice; spices are an essential ingredient[jideani2001] |
| Water | For steeping and wet milling[amankona2016] |
| Fermented milk (nunu) and sugar | To serve; sugar is added to taste[owusu2013] |
| Starter | spontaneous |
Total time across the recorded steps: 24 h – 30 h
What changes: Millet grains steep in water, which turns sour as lactic bacteria multiply
Output: steeped millet.
Microbes at work in this step
lactic acid bacteria rise from 3–4 to 8–10 log CFU/ml in the steep water; coliforms do not fall
Measured measured in a studySet fixed by a specification or tested recipeReported one source reports itTypical a general value, not sourced for this fermentUnconfirmed not yet checked against a source
Pearl millet is steeped, dehulled and wet-milled with spices, mainly ginger, and the dough is left 12 to 18 hours to sour. Large balls of the sour dough are cooked, pounded into a sticky mass and shaped into small balls, which are mashed into fermented milk (nunu) to make fura de nunu. Made in 6 steps over 24 h – 30 h. The longest step, ferment the dough, takes 12–18 h (Owusu-Kwarteng J. 2013). Limosilactobacillus fermentum, dominant at the end of the dough fermentation at all eight production sites studied and Weissella confusa, Pediococcus acidilactici, Limosilactobacillus reuteri, Ligilactobacillus salivarius, Lactiplantibacillus paraplantarum do most of the fermenting.
| Main step | 12–18 hReported[owusu2013] | Ferment the dough |
|---|---|---|
| Acidity | pH 5.6–6.4 → 3.7Measured[owusu2012] | Ferment the dough |
Fura is a cooked, pounded dumpling made from a spiced, soured millet dough. It is eaten mashed into fermented milk.
The dough is cooked, but fura is pounded and shaped by hand afterwards. In a Ghanaian thesis, untreated fura in polyethylene bags at ambient temperature held 8–9 log CFU/g of microbes and began to taste and feel unpleasant in the second week, which its abstract gives as a two-week shelf life. Its discussion says fura with such counts has a shelf life of only a few days. It reports total microbes, yeasts and moulds in storage, not pathogens. Coliforms in the steep water did not fall during a 12 h steep and dropped only in the sour dough (Amankona 2016).
Hazards the sources name: Coliform bacteria, about 5 log CFU/ml in the steep water; they stay or rise during the 12 h steep and fall to 1–2 log CFU during the dough fermentation.
Every number is labelled with how it is known. How this atlas is made
Fura is a staple of the Hausa and Fulani. In Ghana it is made mainly in the northern regions and in Zongo communities, often by women as an income source.
